The mould
Aspergillus oryzaeSake uses yellow koji mould (Aspergillus oryzae). In 2006 the Brewing Society of Japan named it the “national fungus”.
NIHONSHU · SAKE
Sake, in depth.
Brewing, grades, rice, regions, temperature and pairing, step by step.
Sake on one page.
IngredientsRice, koji, water
Polished rice, rice koji and water; some types add brewer’s alcohol. Unlike wine, the starch in the rice must first be turned into sugar.
Polishing ratioThe lower the number, the more polished
A ratio of 60% means 60% of the grain remains. More polishing removes more of the outer layer, but the number alone does not decide taste.
Junmai or notNo added alcohol = junmai
Junmai means no brewer’s alcohol added. Ginjo is a separate axis (method and polishing), hence “junmai ginjo”.
Serving temperatureChilled, room temperature or warm
The JSS suggests chilled 8–15°C, room temperature 15–25°C and warmed 40–50°C. One bottle can taste different at each.
These are guidelines only; every brewery and bottling differs.
From rice to sake in eight steps.
Sake is made from rice, koji and water. Saccharification and alcoholic fermentation happen at the same time in the same tank (“multiple parallel fermentation”). Wine ferments the grape’s own sugar directly.
- 1
Polishing
The outer layer of brown rice is milled away, leaving the core. Ginjo-style sake is milled with special care.
- 2
Washing and soaking
Rice is washed and soaked. Water uptake affects the result, so breweries manage the timing closely.
- 3
Steaming
Rice is steamed, not boiled. It is used both for making koji and for the main mash.
- 4
Koji making
Koji mould is sprinkled on steamed rice and grown for about two days. Its enzymes turn starch into sugar.
- 5
Yeast starter
The “shubo” starter multiplies the yeast. It is made either by growing lactic acid naturally (kimoto, yamahai) or by adding it (sokujo).
- 6
Three-step mash
Steamed rice, koji and water are added in three stages (soe, naka, tome) over four days, so the yeast is never overwhelmed.
- 7
Fermentation
In the tank, the “moromi” ferments while starch is converted. Some sake are fermented slowly at low temperature.
- 8
Pressing, pasteurising, ageing
The moromi is pressed into sake and lees, then filtered, pasteurised, matured, sometimes diluted, and bottled. Namazake is not pasteurised.
Timing and methods vary by brewery and style; this shows the general flow.
MANIACFor enthusiasts
Polishing takes time
Rice is milled slowly to avoid cracking, so highly polished rice can take dozens of hours or more.
Two routes for the starter
Kimoto (including yamahai, which skips the pole-ramming step) lets lactic bacteria work naturally; sokujo adds lactic acid and is quicker. Devised around 1909, it is the mainstream today.
Soe, odori, naka, tome
Day 1 “soe”, day 2 a rest day “odori”, day 3 “naka”, day 4 “tome”. The yeast multiplies during odori.
Up to about 20%
Moromi reaches around 20% because saccharification and fermentation run together, high for a brewed drink; water is usually added to bring it to about 15%.
Koji, the quiet engine of sake.
Koji is steamed rice on which the “koji mould” has been grown. It underpins not only sake but also miso, soy sauce and mirin. Before yeast can make alcohol, koji turns the rice starch into sugar.
What the enzymes do
Sugar and umamiKoji enzymes break starch into sugars and protein into amino acids. Sugars feed the yeast; amino acids contribute umami.
The koji room
About two daysSteamed rice is spread in a warm, humid room. Brewers watch temperature and moisture and turn the rice by hand.
“Hase” growth
Mould entering the grainWhen the mould grows into the core of the grain rather than only on the surface, it is called “tsuki-hase”. This type of koji is said to be preferred for sake.
Koji is also at your table.
- Miso, soy sauce, mirin: koji brings out umami and sweetness.
- Amazake: koji turns rice starch into sugars for a gentle sweetness.
- Shio-koji: salt plus rice koji; tenderises meat and fish.
In 2024, “traditional sake brewing” with koji was inscribed on UNESCO’s intangible heritage list. Sake rules also include, for example, at least 15% of the rice being used for koji.
MANIACFor enthusiasts
Ichi-koji, ni-moto, san-zukuri
A saying that ranks what matters most: koji first, then the starter, then the brewing itself.
Koji rice and kake rice
Rice made into koji (koji-mai) and rice steamed and added as is (kake-mai) are handled separately; some breweries use different varieties for each.
Seed koji (moyashi)
Many breweries buy the spores from specialist suppliers (“moyashi-ya”) and pick the strain they prefer.
Reading “junmai” and “ginjo” on the label.
“Tokutei meisho-shu” are eight designated grades defined by ingredients, polishing and method. They split into junmai types (no added alcohol) and types with brewer’s alcohol.
| Grade | Polishing ratio | Ingredients | Typical impression |
|---|---|---|---|
| Junmai daiginjo | ≤ 50% | rice, koji, water | elegant aroma, delicate |
| Daiginjo | ≤ 50% | rice, koji, brewer’s alcohol | fragrant, light |
| Junmai ginjo | ≤ 60% | rice, koji, water | fruity, balanced |
| Ginjo | ≤ 60% | rice, koji, brewer’s alcohol | crisp, aromatic |
| Tokubetsu junmai | ≤ 60% or special method | rice, koji, water | characterful junmai |
| Tokubetsu honjozo | ≤ 60% or special method | rice, koji, brewer’s alcohol | light, easy-drinking |
| Honjozo | ≤ 70% | rice, koji, brewer’s alcohol | dry, food-friendly |
| Junmai | no numerical limit | rice, koji, water | rice umami, body |
Other rules apply (brewer’s alcohol up to 10% of rice weight, koji rice at least 15%, etc.). The “impression” column is a general tendency, not a promise.
Source : JSS ↗
Explore sake in detail →MANIACFor enthusiasts
Why add alcohol
Added before pressing, it can lift aroma or make the taste crisper. Seeing it as a sign of lower quality is a misunderstanding; it is simply a style.
The “sanzoshu” era
In wartime and postwar rice shortages, volume was tripled with alcohol, sugars and acidifiers: “sanzoshu”. It is a different story from today’s designated grades.
Nihonshu-do and acidity
Nihonshu-do is a density gauge with water at 0: more sugar pushes it negative. High acidity can make sake taste drier, so the number alone does not decide sweet or dry.
Ginjo brewing
Ginjo sake is often fermented slowly at low temperature, which brings out its fruity aroma.
Sake rice is not table rice.
Rice suited to brewing is called “shuzo koteki mai”. Grains are often larger, with a white core called “shinpaku”. The variety is sometimes printed on the label.
山田錦
Yamada NishikiDeveloped in Hyogo in 1936 and often called the “king of sake rice”. Its small shinpaku suits high polishing, so it is common in ginjo sake.
五百万石
GohyakumangokuBred in Niigata in 1957 and the most widely planted sake rice, it tends to give a clean, crisp style.
雄町
OmachiA rare variety that is hard to grow and almost entirely produced in Okayama. Described as full-bodied with a round umami.
美山錦
Miyama NishikiDeveloped in Nagano; often associated with a sharp, light profile.
出羽燦々 ほか
Dewasansan & othersEach region grows its own: Dewasansan (Yamagata), Aiyama (Hyogo), Akita Sake Komachi (Akita), and more.
Flavour notes are tendencies: the same rice varies with brewery and polishing.
MANIACFor enthusiasts
Parents of Yamada Nishiki
It was bred from “Yamadaho” crossed with “Tankan Watarifune”.
Omachi’s age
Said to have been found in Okayama around 1859, one of the oldest sake rice varieties still grown.
The name Gohyakumangoku
Said to commemorate Niigata’s rice harvest passing five million koku.
What makes good sake rice
Large grains, a white core, low protein, and easy for koji to penetrate.
Where is it made? Follow the water and the land.
Sake is made across Japan, and breweries differ even within a prefecture. Here are well-known regions with their climate, water and rice.
Map of sake regions. Select a coloured prefecture or a pin. · Boundaries: MLIT National Land Numerical Information (administrative areas), simplified by JAPANITIES
Nada (Hyogo)
A leading sake region known for its “miyamizu” groundwater and its closeness to Yamada Nishiki fields. “Nada-gogo” is a Geographical Indication (GI).
Fushimi (Kyoto)
Brewing district in southern Kyoto with abundant spring water; often linked with soft, mellow sake.
Niigata
Land of snowmelt and Gohyakumangoku. Known for a “tanrei karakuchi” style: clean and dry. It has one of the largest numbers of breweries.
Hiroshima (Saijo)
Where, in the Meiji era, brewing with soft water was perfected. Saijo is a brewery town known for mellow, umami-rich sake.
Akita
Cold climate and rice country. Kyokai yeast No. 6, isolated at an Akita brewery in 1930, is among the most widely used.
Yamagata
Strong in ginjo-style sake. The whole prefecture is a GI (“Yamagata”), and it grows local rice such as Dewasansan.
Fukushima
Known for many gold medals at the National New Sake Appraisal; Aizu, Nakadori and Hamadori each have their own character.
Kochi
A land said to favour dry sake, with a strong culture of drinking alongside local dishes.
These are tendencies; breweries in each region also make very different sake.
MANIACFor enthusiasts
Miyamizu (Nada)
In Nada, “miyamizu” well water from Nishinomiya has reportedly been used since the late Edo period. Hard and mineral-rich, it is said to drive a vigorous fermentation and firm, dry sake.
Soft-water brewing (Hiroshima)
In Hiroshima, Miura Senzaburo is said to have established in the Meiji era a method suited to soft water.
Toji guilds
Nanbu (Iwate), Echigo (Niigata), Tamba (Hyogo), Noto (Ishikawa) and others: each region has its master-brewer guilds.
National New Sake Appraisal
Started in 1911 and judged each spring. The number of gold medals is often cited as a gauge of breweries and prefectures.
Some well-known sake brands.
Nine breweries and brands you often hear about, from across Japan. This is neither a ranking nor a recommendation, just a way in to the houses and their regions.
DASSAI
獺祭
The official site presents a junmai daiginjo range (e.g. “Migaki 23%”).
The label in the photo reads junmai daiginjo, polishing ratio 39%.
Official site ↗
KUBOTA
久保田
Kubota was launched in 1985; the official site describes a crisp, sharp character (“kire”).
The photo shows a bottle of “Manju”, a junmai daiginjo.
Official site ↗
HAKKAISAN
八海山
The official site speaks of making “clean” sake, under the motto “good sake for many people”.
The photo shows a display inside the brewery’s visitor building.
Official site ↗
GEKKEIKAN
月桂冠
A Fushimi, Kyoto brewery. The official site states it was founded in 1637 (Kan’ei 14).
The photo shows white-walled brewery buildings at the Gekkeikan Okura Sake Museum in Fushimi.
Official site ↗
HAKUTSURU
白鶴
A Nada (Kobe) brewery, said to have been founded in 1743 (Kanpo 3).
The photo shows a display of old brewing tools and figures at the Hakutsuru Sake Brewery Museum.
Official site ↗
KIKUMASAMUNE
菊正宗
The official site’s slogan is “from Nada to the world”, and it features kimoto brewing prominently.
The photo shows Kiku-Masamune sake barrels outside a shop in Nagoya.
Official site ↗
OZEKI
大関
The official site speaks of brewing since 1711. “One Cup Ozeki” is one of its products.
The photo shows a 180 ml “One Cup Ozeki”, a single-serve cup of sake you open and drink as is.
Official site ↗
MASUMI
真澄
The official site presents the brewery as the birthplace of the “Kyokai No. 7” yeast.
The photo shows Masumi’s straw-wrapped barrels (komodaru); a label reading “Tenka no meishu” is visible.
Official site ↗
KOKURYU
黒龍
The official site presents two brands: “Kokuryu” and “Kuzuryu”.
The photo shows Kokuryu’s combined shop and main house in Eiheiji.
Official site ↗Information is limited to what can be confirmed on each brewery’s official site. Photos are freely licensed from Wikimedia Commons, with author and licence shown. Please drink in moderation; in Japan, drinking under 20 is prohibited by law.
Four flavour types.
The SSI (a sake-expert association) sorts sake into four types by aroma and body. A handy map for finding what you like.
Kunshu
AromaticGinjo and daiginjo. Floral, fruity aromas. Serve chilled in a wine glass.
Soshu
Light and smoothHonjozo, namazake. Gentle aroma, light body. Easy and chilled.
Junshu
Rich and fullJunmai. Rice umami and body. Anywhere from room temperature to warm.
Jukushu
Mature and deepAged sake (koshu). Amber colour, notes of honey or spice.
MANIACFor enthusiasts
What ginjo aroma is
Two typical compounds: ethyl caproate (apple) and isoamyl acetate (banana). The yeast strain changes how they show.
Kyokai yeasts
Yeasts distributed by the Brewing Society of Japan: No. 6 (1930, from an Akita brewery), No. 7 (Nagano), No. 9 (Kumamoto, suited to ginjo)…
One bottle, many faces.
Sake can be served cold or warm, and each temperature has a poetic name. Find the one you like.
| Name | Temperature | Impression |
|---|---|---|
| Yukibie | about 5°C | very cold, crisp |
| Hanabie | about 10°C | aromas begin to open |
| Suzubie | about 15°C | balanced aroma and taste |
| Room temp (hiya) | about 20°C | rice umami is clear |
| Hitohadakan | about 35°C | gently warm |
| Nurukan | about 40°C | rounder |
| Jokan | about 45°C | umami and snap |
| Atsukan | about 50°C | aromatic, crisp |
Common guidelines (JSS: chilled 8–15°C, room temp 15–25°C, warmed 40–50°C). Check the bottle or brewery first, as each sake differs.
Source : JSS ↗
MANIACFor enthusiasts
Kan-samashi
Sake warmed and then cooled (“kan-samashi”) is said to turn rounder.
Yawaragi-mizu
Water drunk between sips of sake is “yawaragi-mizu”: it paces the drinking and refreshes the palate.
Sake vessels: choosing the right one.
The vessel changes how sake smells, feels and holds its temperature. Here are the main ones and how they are used.
Tokkuri
For pouringA narrow-necked flask for pouring. For warm sake it is often heated in a hot-water bath and brought straight to the table.
Ochoko
Small cupA small cup for sipping, often holding a few dozen ml, suited to pouring for one another.
Guinomi
Larger cupLarger than an ochoko. Shape and clay show real character, and many people collect them.
Sakazuki
Shallow, wide cupA shallow, wide cup, also used at celebrations and ceremonies.
Katakuchi
Spouted bowlA bowl with a spout. Sake is decanted into it, especially chilled sake, and served at the table.
Masu
Wooden boxOriginally a wooden measure (1 go ≈ 180 ml) that lends a woody scent. Sake is sometimes served in a glass set in a masu and filled to overflowing (“mokkiri”).
Wine glass
For aromaWell suited to the floral, fruity aroma of ginjo. A regular Bordeaux wine glass works fine.
Material changes feel and temperature
| Material | Character | Good for |
|---|---|---|
| Pottery (earthenware/stoneware) | Clay; thick, soft in the hand, keeps warmth | warm sake, umami-rich junmai |
| Porcelain (stone) | Ground stone; thin, hard, non-absorbent, smooth rim | chilled sake, ginjo |
| Glass | Transparent; shows colour and coolness | chilled, aromatic ginjo |
| Tin | Conducts heat well, so cold and warmth are felt | chilled or warm sake |
| Wood (masu) | Passes on a woody scent | cask sake, celebrations |
Many vessels are ceramics: a few kilns to know
Japan has many ceramic centres, each with its own clay and craft. Here are a few.
Bizen
Unglazed ware fired long and hot; one of Japan’s “Six Ancient Kilns”. Raw clay surface, a popular choice for sake.
Arita (Imari)
Regarded as where porcelain was first made in Japan; known for painted designs on a white body.
Kutani
Porcelain famous for vivid overglaze painting; it adds colour to the table.
Hagi
Soft earthenware whose colour changes with use, hence the phrase “seven transformations of Hagi”.
Shigaraki
One of the Six Ancient Kilns, loved for its rough clay and flame-marked surfaces.
Mashiko
Simple, sturdy earthenware, popular for everyday use.
The Six Ancient Kilns are Seto, Tokoname, Echizen, Shigaraki, Tamba-Tachikui and Bizen.
By temperature
Thin porcelain or glass for chilled sake; thick pottery for warm sake.
By aroma
For aroma choose a flared glass; a thinner rim feels lighter on the lips.
Care
Pottery is sometimes “sealed” first by simmering in rice-rinsing water. Dry it well after use.
MANIACFor enthusiasts
The “janome” ochoko
A white ochoko with blue double rings inside, called “janome”, is used in tastings to judge colour and clarity.
Behind the “seven transformations”
Fine cracks in the glaze (“kannyu”) let sake or tea seep in and gradually change the colour.
Compare with wine to understand sake.
If you know Bordeaux wine, sake feels closer. Both are fermented drinks, but they work differently.
| Sake | Wine | |
|---|---|---|
| Ingredients | rice, koji, water | grapes |
| Source of sugar | starch converted by koji | natural sugar in the fruit |
| Fermentation | saccharification and fermentation together | simple fermentation |
| Typical strength | often about 15% | often 12–14% |
| Label clues | grade, polishing, rice, brewery | appellation, grape, classification, vintage |
| Serving | chilled to hot | mostly chilled to room temperature |
Wine vocabulary: what is the sake equivalent?
| In wine | In sake | Worth noting |
|---|---|---|
| Appellation (AOC): Médoc, Pomerol | Brewery location; some GIs: Nada-gogo, Yamagata… | On the label, brand and brewery matter more than region. Only some regions hold a GI. |
| Grape: cabernet, merlot | Sake rice: Yamada Nishiki, Gohyakumangoku, Omachi | Bordeaux usually blends several grapes; sake may use one rice variety or several. |
| Classification: Médoc 1855 first growth | Grade: junmai daiginjo, junmai ginjo, honjozo… | Wine classifications rank châteaux; sake grades describe ingredients and polishing, not a brand’s standing. |
| Vintage (harvest year) | Production date | Sake labels mainly show the production date, not a harvest year. Many are enjoyed fairly soon after release, but aged sake exists too. |
| Château (producer) | Brewery (kura) | In both cases, the producer is a clue to style. |
| Winemaker / œnologist | Toji (master brewer) | The toji leads the brewing at the brewery. |
| Terroir (soil, climate) | Rice, brewing water, climate, craft | For sake, water and the brewer’s craft weigh heavily alongside the land. |
| Taste words: tannin, acidity, body | Umami, acidity, sweet/dry (nihonshu-do), aroma | Tannin is not central in sake; people talk about umami, sweet/dry and aroma instead. |
| Harvest: autumn | Brewing: traditionally winter (kanzukuri) | Some breweries now brew all year round. |
Reading a label, step by step
Wine (Bordeaux)
- Château name (producer)
- Appellation (AOC): e.g. Pauillac
- Classification wording
- Vintage
- Alcohol strength
Sake
- Brand and brewery
- Grade: junmai ginjo, etc.
- Ingredients: rice, koji (with or without added alcohol)
- Polishing ratio (shown for designated grades)
- Strength, production date, storage (keep chilled, etc.)
MANIACFor enthusiasts
The idea of blending
Sake tends to be blended for a consistent taste year to year, whereas wine celebrates vintage differences.
Two scales for sweetness
Wine uses residual sugar; sake uses nihonshu-do and acidity. The scales differ, so the numbers cannot be compared directly.
Four tips for pairing.
There is no single right answer; these are starting points.
Layer umami with umami
Dishes with dashi, miso or soy sauce often suit a junmai with rice umami.
Aromatic sake, delicate dishes
The aromas of ginjo suit white fish and vegetables without overwhelming them.
Rich dishes: snap or warmth
For fried or fatty food, try a crisp honjozo or a warmed junmai.
Even with French ingredients
Aged cheeses and seafood, rich in umami and salt, can work with sake. Start with a small taste.
Main sources: JSS and official prefectural materials.